Recovery-clockwork-6.0.4.5-ancora.tar.md5 - Google Drive. 6.1 armada370 5.2 monaco 6.1 qoriq 1.2 ipq806x 6.1 88f628x 6.1 broadwell 6.2 broadwellnk 6.1 bromolow 6.1 comcerto2k 6.1 dockerx64 6.1 evansport 6.1 kvmx64 6.2 geminilake 1.2 dakota 6.1 cedarview 5.0 88f628x 5.2 armada38x 6.1 armadaxp 6.1 avoton 6.1 braswell 6.1 x86 6.2 purley 1.2 northstarplus 6.1 alpine 6.1 alpine4k 6.1 apollolake 6.1. SNMPv2-MIB: This is the MIB module SNMPv2-MIB from Standards / RFCs.This OID tree represents the compiled SNMP MIB module SNMPv2-MIB and includes only high-level compiled information.
Time 4 Popcorn 6.0 This Popcorn Time service not only offer movies but TV shows too. Just select a movie or episode and press play. Download Specs What's New Alternatives 4.
'Bi' means 'two' (like a bicycle has two wheels) . |
Tossing a Coin:
- Did we get Heads (H) or
- Tails (T)
We say the probability of the coin landing H is ½
And the probability of the coin landing T is ½
Throwing a Die:
- Did we get a four . ?
- . or not?
We say the probability of a four is 1/6 (one of the six faces is a four)
And the probability of not four is 5/6 (five of the six faces are not a four)
Note that a die has 6 sides but here we look at only two cases: 'four: yes' or 'four: no'
Let's Toss a Coin!
Toss a fair coin three times . what is the chance of getting two Heads?
Tossing a coin three times (H is for heads, T for Tails) can get any of these 8 outcomes:
| HHH |
| HHT |
| HTH |
| HTT |
| THH |
| THT |
| TTH |
| TTT |
Which outcomes do we want?
'Two Heads' could be in any order: 'HHT', 'THH' and 'HTH' all have two Heads (and one Tail).
So 3 of the outcomes produce 'Two Heads'.
What is the probability of each outcome?
Each outcome is equally likely, and there are 8 of them, so each outcome has a probability of 1/8
So the probability of event 'Two Heads' is:
| Number of outcomes we want | Probability of each outcome | ||
| 3 | × | 1/8 | = 3/8 |
So the chance of getting Two Heads is 3/8
We used special words:
- Outcome: any result of three coin tosses (8 different possibilities)
- Event: 'Two Heads' out of three coin tosses (3 outcomes have this)
3 Heads, 2 Heads, 1 Head, None
The calculations are (P means 'Probability of'):
- P(Three Heads) = P(HHH) = 1/8
- P(Two Heads) = P(HHT) + P(HTH) + P(THH) = 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 = 3/8
- P(One Head) = P(HTT) + P(THT) + P(TTH) = 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 = 3/8
- P(Zero Heads) = P(TTT) = 1/8
We can write this in terms of a Random Variable, X, = 'The number of Heads from 3 tosses of a coin':
- P(X = 3) = 1/8
- P(X = 2) = 3/8
- P(X = 1) = 3/8
- P(X = 0) = 1/8
And this is what it looks like as a graph:
It is symmetrical!
Making a Formula
Now imagine we want the chances of 5 heads in 9 tosses: to list all 512 outcomes will take a long time!
So let's make a formula.
In our previous example, how can we get the values 1, 3, 3 and 1 ?
Well, they are actually in Pascal's Triangle !
Can we make them using a formula?
Sure we can, and here it is:
It is often called 'n choose k'
- n = total number
- k = number we want
- the '!' means 'factorial', for example 4! = 1×2×3×4 = 24
You can read more about it at Combinations and Permutations.
Let's try it:
Example: with 3 tosses, what are the chances of 2 Heads?
We have n=3 and k=2:
So there are 3 outcomes that have '2 Heads'
(We knew that already, but now we have a formula for it.)
Let's use it for a harder question:
Example: with 9 tosses, what are the chances of 5 Heads?
We have n=9 and k=5:
So 126 of the outcomes will have 5 heads
And for 9 tosses there are a total of 29 = 512 outcomes, so we get the probability:
| Number of outcomes we want | Probability of each outcome | |||
| 126 | × | 1512 | = | 126512 |
So:
P(X=5) = 126512 = 0.24609375
About a 25% chance.
(Easier than listing them all.)
Bias!
So far the chances of success or failure have been equally likely.
But what if the coins are biased (land more on one side than another) or choices are not 50/50.
Example: You sell sandwiches. 70% of people choose chicken, the rest choose something else.
What is the probability of selling 2 chicken sandwiches to the next 3 customers?
This is just like the heads and tails example, but with 70/30 instead of 50/50.
Let's draw a tree diagram:
The 'Two Chicken' cases are highlighted.
The probabilities for 'two chickens' all work out to be 0.147, because we are multiplying two 0.7s and one 0.3 in each case. In other words
0.147 = 0.7 × 0.7 × 0.3
Or, using exponents:
= 0.72 × 0.31
The 0.7 is the probability of each choice we want, call it p
The 2 is the number of choices we want, call it k
And we have (so far):
= pk × 0.31
The 0.3 is the probability of the opposite choice, so it is: 1−p
The 1 is the number of opposite choices, so it is: n−k
Which gives us:
= pk(1-p)(n-k)
Where
- p is the probability of each choice we want
- k is the the number of choices we want
- n is the total number of choices
Example: (continued)
- p = 0.7 (chance of chicken)
- k = 2 (chicken choices)
- n = 3 (total choices)
So we get:
which is what we got before, but now using a formula
Now we know the probability of each outcome is 0.147
But we need to include that there are three such ways it can happen: (chicken, chicken, other) or (chicken, other, chicken) or (other, chicken, chicken)
Example: (continued)
The total number of 'two chicken' outcomes is:
And we get:
| Number of outcomes we want | Probability of each outcome | |||
| 3 | × | 0.147 | = | 0.441 |
So the probability of event '2 people out of 3 choose chicken' = 0.441
OK. That was a lot of work for something we knew already, but now we have a formula we can use for harder questions.
Example: Sam says '70% choose chicken, so 7 of the next 10 customers should choose chicken' . what are the chances Sam is right?
https://game-boy-advance-emulators-for-mac-os-x-gba-emulator-mgbafree.peatix.com. So we have:
- p = 0.7
- n = 10
- k = 7
And we get:
That is the probability of each outcome.
And the total number of those outcomes is:
And we get:
| Number of outcomes we want | Probability of each outcome | |||
| 120 | × | 0.0022235661 | = | 0.266827932 |
So the probability of 7 out of 10 choosing chicken is only about 27%
Moral of the story: even though the long-run average is 70%, don't expect 7 out of the next 10.
Putting it Together
Now we know how to calculate how many:
n!k!(n-k)!
And the probability of each:
pk(1-p)(n-k)
When multiplied together we get: https://dijivr.over-blog.com/2020/12/dont-starve-309895-sandbox-survival-adventure-game.html.
Probability of k out of n ways: Netnewswire 4 0 2 – rss and atom news reader.
P(k out of n) = n!k!(n-k)!pk(1-p)(n-k)
Devonthink pro 2 0 9 ubk download free. The General Binomial Probability Formula
Important Notes:
- The trials are independent,
- There are only two possible outcomes at each trial,
- The probability of 'success' at each trial is constant.
Quincunx
Have a play with the Quincunx (then read Quincunx Explained) to see the Binomial Distribution in action.
Throw the Die
A fair die is thrown four times. Calculate the probabilities of getting:
- 0 Twos
- 1 Two
- 2 Twos
- 3 Twos
- 4 Twos
In this case n=4, p = P(Two) = 1/6
X is the Random Variable ‘Number of Twos from four throws'.
Substitute x = 0 to 4 into the formula:
P(k out of n) = n!k!(n-k)! pk(1-p)(n-k)
Like this (to 4 decimal places):
- P(X = 0) = 4!0!4! × (1/6)0(5/6)4 = 1 × 1 × (5/6)4 = 0.4823
- P(X = 1) = 4!1!3! × (1/6)1(5/6)3 = 4 × (1/6) × (5/6)3 = 0.3858
- P(X = 2) = 4!2!2! × (1/6)2(5/6)2 = 6 × (1/6)2 × (5/6)2 = 0.1157
- P(X = 3) = 4!3!1! × (1/6)3(5/6)1 = 4 × (1/6)3 × (5/6) = 0.0154
- P(X = 4) = 4!4!0! × (1/6)4(5/6)0 = 1 × (1/6)4 × 1 = 0.0008
Summary: 'for the 4 throws, there is a 48% chance of no twos, 39% chance of 1 two, 12% chance of 2 twos, 1.5% chance of 3 twos, and a tiny 0.08% chance of all throws being a two (but it still could happen!)'
This time the graph is not symmetrical:
It is not symmetrical!
It is skewed because p is not 0.5
Sports Bikes
Your company makes sports bikes. 90% pass final inspection (and 10% fail and need to be fixed).
What is the expected Mean and Variance of the 4 next inspections?
First, let's calculate all probabilities.
- n = 4,
- p = P(Pass) = 0.9
X is the Random Variable 'Number of passes from four inspections'.
Substitute x = 0 to 4 into the formula:
P(k out of n) = n!k!(n-k)! pk(1-p)(n-k)
Like this:
- P(X = 0) = 4!0!4! × 0.900.14 = 1 × 1 × 0.0001 = 0.0001
- P(X = 1) = 4!1!3! × 0.910.13 = 4 × 0.9 × 0.001 = 0.0036
- P(X = 2) = 4!2!2! × 0.920.12 = 6 × 0.81 × 0.01 = 0.0486
- P(X = 3) = 4!3!1! × 0.930.11 = 4 × 0.729 × 0.1 = 0.2916
- P(X = 4) = 4!4!0! × 0.940.10 = 1 × 0.6561 × 1 = 0.6561
Summary: 'for the 4 next bikes, there is a tiny 0.01% chance of no passes, 0.36% chance of 1 pass, 5% chance of 2 passes, 29% chance of 3 passes, and a whopping 66% chance they all pass the inspection.'
Mean, Variance and Standard Deviation
Let's calculate the Mean, Variance and Standard Deviation for the Sports Bike inspections.
Habitify 6 0 4 Mm
There are (relatively) simple formulas for them. They are a little hard to prove, but they do work! Justbroadcaster for facebook 2 1 64.
The mean, or 'expected value', is:
μ = np
For the sports bikes:
μ = 4 × 0.9 = 3.6
So we can expect 3.6 bikes (out of 4) to pass the inspection.
Makes sense really . 0.9 chance for each bike times 4 bikes equals 3.6
The formula for Variance is:
Variance: σ2 = np(1-p)
And Standard Deviation is the square root of variance:
σ = √(np(1-p))
For the sports bikes:
Variance: σ2 = 4 × 0.9 × 0.1 = 0.36
Standard Deviation is:
σ = √(0.36) = 0.6
Note: we could also calculate them manually, by making a table like this:
| X | P(X) | X × P(X) | X2 × P(X) |
| 0 | 0.0001 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 0.0036 | 0.0036 | 0.0036 |
| 2 | 0.0486 | 0.0972 | 0.1944 |
| 3 | 0.2916 | 0.8748 | 2.6244 |
| 4 | 0.6561 | 2.6244 | 10.4976 |
| SUM: | 3.6 | 13.32 |
The mean is the Sum of (X × P(X)):
μ = 3.6
The variance is the Sum of (X2 × P(X)) minus Mean2:
Variance: σ2 = 13.32 − 3.62 = 0.36
Standard Deviation is:σ = √(0.36) = 0.6
And we got the same results as before (yay!)Summary
- The General Binomial Probability Formula:
P(k out of n) = n!k!(n-k)! pk(1-p)(n-k)
- Mean value of X: μ = np
- Variance of X: σ2 = np(1-p)
- Standard Deviation of X: σ = √(np(1-p))
| Deutsche Version |
● Correlation between sones und phons − calculator●
Conversion of sone to phon and the problem withdB and dBA
Domain of Psychoacoustics
| The subjective perceived sound volume and the artificial term loudness are subjective terms trying to describe the strength of the ear's perception of a sound. The determination of the loudness of stationary signals is defined in ISO 532 or in DIN 45631. |
| The loudness of N = 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons, which is the loudness level of LN = 40 dB of a sine wave (sinusoid) with a frequency of f = 1000 Hz. Kurt Tucholsky: 'Noise is the noise of others and one's dog makes no noise.' 'There are many kinds of noise - but only one silence.' Loudness is a personal subjective characteristic of a sound - as opposed to the sound pressure level in decibels, which is objective and directly measurable. SPL. |
Conversion of Volume (Magnitude of Sound):
Loudness levelLN (phons) to Loudness N (sones)
andLoudness N (sones) to Loudness level LN (phons)
Subjectively perceived loudness (volume), objectively measured
sound pressure, and theoretically calculated sound intensity
The human perception of loudness − loudness factor
| The used browser does not support JavaScript. You will see the program but the function will not work. |
Conversion valid between 40 phons and 120 phons
That means for larger values than '1 sone is equal to 40 phons'
For loudness level LN > 40 phons: loudness N in sones = 2[(LN − 40)/10](LN in phons)
For loudness N > 1 sone: loudness level LN in phons = 40 + [10 × log N/ log102] (N in sones)
log 2 = 0.30103LN in phons = 40 + 33.22 × log NN in sones
Conversion only valid between 8 phons and 40 phons
That means for smaller values than '1 sone is equal to 40 phons'
So we can expect 3.6 bikes (out of 4) to pass the inspection.
Makes sense really . 0.9 chance for each bike times 4 bikes equals 3.6
The formula for Variance is:
Variance: σ2 = np(1-p)
And Standard Deviation is the square root of variance:
σ = √(np(1-p))
For the sports bikes:
Variance: σ2 = 4 × 0.9 × 0.1 = 0.36
Standard Deviation is:
σ = √(0.36) = 0.6
Note: we could also calculate them manually, by making a table like this:
| X | P(X) | X × P(X) | X2 × P(X) |
| 0 | 0.0001 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 0.0036 | 0.0036 | 0.0036 |
| 2 | 0.0486 | 0.0972 | 0.1944 |
| 3 | 0.2916 | 0.8748 | 2.6244 |
| 4 | 0.6561 | 2.6244 | 10.4976 |
| SUM: | 3.6 | 13.32 |
The mean is the Sum of (X × P(X)):
μ = 3.6
The variance is the Sum of (X2 × P(X)) minus Mean2:
Variance: σ2 = 13.32 − 3.62 = 0.36
Standard Deviation is:σ = √(0.36) = 0.6
And we got the same results as before (yay!)Summary
- The General Binomial Probability Formula:
P(k out of n) = n!k!(n-k)! pk(1-p)(n-k)
- Mean value of X: μ = np
- Variance of X: σ2 = np(1-p)
- Standard Deviation of X: σ = √(np(1-p))
| Deutsche Version |
● Correlation between sones und phons − calculator●
Conversion of sone to phon and the problem withdB and dBA
Domain of Psychoacoustics
| The subjective perceived sound volume and the artificial term loudness are subjective terms trying to describe the strength of the ear's perception of a sound. The determination of the loudness of stationary signals is defined in ISO 532 or in DIN 45631. |
| The loudness of N = 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons, which is the loudness level of LN = 40 dB of a sine wave (sinusoid) with a frequency of f = 1000 Hz. Kurt Tucholsky: 'Noise is the noise of others and one's dog makes no noise.' 'There are many kinds of noise - but only one silence.' Loudness is a personal subjective characteristic of a sound - as opposed to the sound pressure level in decibels, which is objective and directly measurable. SPL. |
Conversion of Volume (Magnitude of Sound):
Loudness levelLN (phons) to Loudness N (sones)
andLoudness N (sones) to Loudness level LN (phons)
Subjectively perceived loudness (volume), objectively measured
sound pressure, and theoretically calculated sound intensity
The human perception of loudness − loudness factor
| The used browser does not support JavaScript. You will see the program but the function will not work. |
Conversion valid between 40 phons and 120 phons
That means for larger values than '1 sone is equal to 40 phons'
For loudness level LN > 40 phons: loudness N in sones = 2[(LN − 40)/10](LN in phons)
For loudness N > 1 sone: loudness level LN in phons = 40 + [10 × log N/ log102] (N in sones)
log 2 = 0.30103LN in phons = 40 + 33.22 × log NN in sones
Conversion only valid between 8 phons and 40 phons
That means for smaller values than '1 sone is equal to 40 phons'
For loudness N < 1 sone: loudness level LN in phons = 40 × (N + 0.0005)0.35N in sones
| According to Stanley Smith Stevens' definition, 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons, which is defined as the loudness level of a pure 1 kHz tone at LN = 40 dBSPL, but only (!) for a sine wave of 1 kHz and not for broadband noise. There is no 'dBA' curve given as threshold of human hearing. 'dBA' has absolutely noting to do with sone, or with phons, or sound pressure level in dB. 60 phons means 'as loud as a pure 1000 Hz tone with a level of 60 dB.' |
Relation between loudness N in sones
and loudness level LN in phons
|
| Loudness N (sone) and loudness level LN (phon), as shown here, is easily converted into one another. But the psychoacoustic perceived loudness level and the objectively measured sound pressure level in dBSPL cannot be converted to the weighted dBA level. There is no formula. The typical question: 'How to convert 0.5 sone to decibel (dB)?' cannot be answered. Only a pure tone of 1 kHz measured in phons is equivalent to a dB-SPL value. Distinguish carefully when looking at the volume (magnitude of sound). Sone is part of the loudness. Phon is part of the loudness level. Try to avoid the laymen's word 'intensity'. dB or dB-SPL is the sound pressure level. dBA is a filter measurement for a very simplified evaluation of volume. |
| The volume of a sound is a subjective perception. To 'measure' loudness, the volume of a 1,000 hertz reference tone is adjusted until it is perceived by listeners to be equally as loud as the sound being 'measured'. The loudness level, in phons, of the sound is then equal to the sound-pressure level, in decibels. Readings of a pure 1 kHz tone should be identical, whether weighted or not. Between the loudness N in sone and the loudness level LN in phon we have the following connection (ISO-recommendation ISO/R 131-1959): Loudness N = 2(LN − 40)/10 or loudness level LN = 40 + 10 × lb N. 'lb' means logarithm base 2. 10 × lb N = 10 × log2(N) The sone is a unit of perceived loudness after a proposal of Stanley Smith Stevens (1906-1973) in 1936. In acoustics, loudness is a subjective measure of the sound pressure. One sone is equivalent to 40 phons, which is defined as the loudness of a 1 kHz tone at 40 dBSPL. The number of sones to a phon was chosen so that a doubling of the number of sones sounds to the human ear like a doubling of the loudness, which also corresponds to increasing the sound pressure level by 10 dB, or increasing the sound pressure by a ratio 3.16 (= √10). At frequencies other than 1 kHz, the measurement in sones must be calibrated according to the frequency response of human hearing, which is of course a subjective process. The study of apparent loudness is included in the topic of psycho acoustics.Volume in acoustics is used as a synonym for loudness. It is a common term for the amplitude or the level of sound. To be fully precise, a measurement in sones must be qualified by the optional suffix G, which means that the loudness value is calculated from frequency groups, and by one of the two suffixes F (for free field) or D (for diffuse field). |
Note - Comparing dB and dBA: There is no conversion formula for measured dBA values to sound pressure level dBSPL or vice versa. There is no correlation between sound pressure level SPL as broadband measuring and dBA. To know the measuring distance and the frequency content of the signals could also be important. |
| With the following table you can try to convert roughly, but be cautious using these psychoacoustic values. The frequency composition of the signal amplitude is always unknown. The distance of the measuring point is important for the value of the measure. From a dB-A measurement no accurate description of the expected volume is possible. A typical noise question: How does dbA compare to sones? The following chart is, however, for the dBA values no accurate knowledge − it's more a guess. 'Conversion' of 'sones to dBA' |
| sones | phons | dBA | sones | phons | dBA |
| 0.1 | 17.9 | 20.5 | 1.8 | 48.5 | 34.8 |
| 0.2 | 22.8 | 21.5 | 1.9 | 49.3 | 35.3 |
| 0.3 | 26.2 | 22.5 | 2.0 | 50.0 | 35.8 |
| 0.4 | 29.0 | 23.5 | 2.1 | 50.7 | 36.4 |
| 0.5 | 31.4 | 24.4 | 2.2 | 51.4 | 37.0 |
| 0.6 | 33.5 | 25.3 | 2.3 | 52.0 | 37.5 |
| 0.7 | 35.3 | 26.3 | 2.4 | 52.6 | 38.0 |
| 0.8 | 37.0 | 27.2 | 2.5 | 53.2 | 38.4 |
| 0.9 | 38.6 | 28.2 | 2.6 | 53.8 | 38.8 |
| 1.0 | 40.0 | 29.2 | 2.7 | 54.3 | 39.3 |
| 1.1 | 41.4 | 30.2 | 2.8 | 54.9 | 39.8 |
| 1.2 | 42.6 | 31.1 | 2.9 | 55.4 | 40.2 |
| 1.3 | 43.8 | 32.0 | 3.0 | 55.9 | 40.6 |
| 1.4 | 44.9 | 32.9 | 3.1 | 56.3 | 41.1 |
| 1.5 | 45.9 | 33.5 | 3.2 | 56.8 | 41.5 |
| 1.6 | 46.9 | 33.9 | 3.3 | 57.2 | 42.0 |
| 1.7 | 47.7 | 34.4 | 3.4 | 57.7 | 42.5 |
Pro audio equipment often lists an A-weighted noise spec sheet − (specification) not because it correlates well with our hearing – but because it can 'hide' nasty hum components that make for bad noise specs. Words to bright minds: Always wonder what a manufacturer is hiding when they use A-weighting. *) |
| This frequency weighting with the A-curve is used for noise measurements. It is close to the frequency response of the human hearing for levels below 40 dB only. But this filter is also used for higher levels, a purpose it was never intended for, and is not suited to, and therefore gives lower test results than our ears are hearing. The cut-off low frequencies are not measured. |
| A formula with a cautious try to convert sones to decibels: dBA = 33.22 × log (sones) + 28 with a possible accuracy of ± 2 dBA or sones = 10^[(dBA − 28) / 33.22] |
The phon is a unit of perceived loudness level, which is a subjective measure of the strength (not intensity) of a sound. At a frequency of 1 kHz, 1 phon is defined to be equal to 1 dB of sound pressure level above the nominal threshold of hearing, the sound pressure level SPL of 20 µPa (micropascals) = 2×10−5 pascal (Pa). Our ears as sensors cannot convert sound intensities and powers, they can only use the sound pressure changes between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. At other frequencies, the phon departs from the decibel, but is related to it by a frequency weighting curve (equal-loudness contour) that reflects the frequency response of human hearing. The standard curve for human hearing is the A-weighted curve (the equal-loudness contour for a 40 dB stimulus at 1 kHz), but others are in use.
The 'unit' phon has been largely replaced by the dBA (A-weighted decibel), though many old textbooks and instructors continue to use the phon. Note: 'Set the volume of the radio double as loud or half as loud.' Who does not know, how to do this, is a normal person. Psycho-acousticians are telling us, that it has to be 10 dB level difference. Try to cool your hot coffee to the point 'half as hot' - and think it over. Your own feeling may be much different to other persons. An increase from 6 dB to 10 dB is perceived by most listeners as 'double' the volume. These sensations are highly subjective, meaning that different people will hear this in different ways, and 'twice as loud' is a much harder thing to guess than something. The human perception of loudness is perceived differently from each subject. In other words it is one's own perception of sound and it is subjective of sound pressure level SPL. |
Incidentally, the sound pressure p doesn't decrease with the square of the distance from the sound source (1/r²). This is an often-told and believed wrong tale. |
Sound Level Comparison Chart with Factor
| Table of sound level dependence and the change of the respective factor to subjective volume (loudness), objective sound pressure (voltage), and sound intensity (acoustic power) How many decibels (dB) level change is double, half, or four times as loud? How many dB to appear twice as loud (two times)? Here are all the different factors. Factor means 'how many times' or 'how much' . Doubling of loudness. |
| Level change | Volume Loudness | Voltage Sound pressure | Acoustic Power Sound Intensity |
| +60 dB | 64 | 1000 | 1000000 |
| +50 dB | 32 | 316 | 100000 |
| +40 dB | 16 | 100 | 10000 |
| +30 dB | 8 | 31.6 | 1000 |
| +20 dB | 4 | 10 | 100 |
| +10 dB | 2.0 = double | 3.16 = √10 | 10 |
| +6 dB | 1.52 times | 2.0 = double | 4.0 |
| +3 dB | 1.23 times | 1.414 times = √2 | 2.0 = double |
| - - - - ±0 dB - - - - | - - -1.0 - - - - - - - | - - - - - 1.0 - - - - - - - | - - - - - 1.0 - - - - - - |
| −3 dB | 0.816 times | 0.707 times | 0.5 = half |
| −6 dB | 0.660 times | 0.5 = half | 0.25 |
| −10 dB | 0.5 = half | 0.316 | 0.1 |
| −20 dB | 0.25 | 0.100 | 0.01 |
| −30 dB | 0.125 | 0.0316 | 0.001 |
| −40 dB | 0.0625 | 0.0100 | 0.0001 |
| −50 dB | 0.0312 | 0.0032 | 0.00001 |
| −60 dB | 0.0156 | 0.001 | 0.000001 |
| Log. quantity | Psycho quantity | Field size | Energy size |
| dB change | Loudness multipl. | Amplitude multiplier | Power multiplier |
| For a 10 dB increase of the sound level we require ten times more power from the amplifier. This increase of the sound level means for the sound pressure a lifting of the factor 3.16. Loudness and volume are highly subjective. That belongs to the domain of psychoacoustics. |
| Is 10 dB or 6 dB sound level change for a doubling or halving of the loudness (volume) correct? About the connection between sound level and loudness, there are various theories. Far spread is still the theory of psycho-acoustic pioneer Stanley Smith Stevens, indicating that the doubling or halving the sensation of loudness corresponds to a level difference of 10 dB. Recent research by Richard M. Warren, on the other hand leads to a level difference of 6 dB. *) This means that a double sound pressure corresponds to a double loudness. The psychologist John G. Neuhoff found out that for the rising level our hearing is more sensitive than for the declining level. For the same sound level difference the change of loudness from quiet to loud is stronger than from loud to quiet. It is suggested that the sone scale of loudness reflects the influence of known experimental biases and hence does not represent a fundamental relation between stimulus and sensation. *) Richard M. Warren, 'Elimination of Biases in Loudness Judgments for Tones', 1970, Journal of the Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 48, Issue 6B, pp. 1397 - 1403 and Richard M. Warren, 'Quantification of Loudness', 1973, American Journal of Psychology, Vol 86 (4), pp. 807 - 825 John G. Neuhoff, 'An adaptive bias in the perception of looming auditory motion', 2001, Ecological Psychology 13 (2) pp. 87 - 110 and John G. Neuhoff, 'Perceptual Bias for Rising Tones', 1998, Nature, Volume 395, September Citation: When known experimental biases were eliminated, half loudness was equal to half sound pressure level (−6 dB) from 45 to 90 dB. It follows that the determination of the volume (loudness) which is double as loud should not be dogmatically defined. More realistic is the claim: |
Habitify 6 0 4 X 2
A doubling of the sensed volume (loudness) is equivalent to a level change approximately between 6 dB and 10 dB, the psycho-acousticians are telling us. |
| How do you convert sound sizes to decibel values? How many decibels is twice (double, half) or three times as loud? How does the sound decrease with distance? |
Habitify 6 0 4 0
There is a constant uncertainty of the answer to the question: 'How many dBs are doubling a sound'? or 'What is twice the sound?' Doubling the (sound) intensity is obtained by an increase of the sound intensity level of 3 dB. Doubling the sound pressure is obtained by an increase of the sound pressure level of 6 dB ● Doubling the loudness feeling is obtained by an increase of the loudness level of about 10 dB. Double or twice the power = factor 2 means 3 dB more calculated power level (sound intensity level). Double or twice the voltage = factor 2 means 6 dB more measured voltage level (sound pressure level) ● Double or twice the loudness = factor 2 means 10 dB more sensed loudness level (psycho acoustic). |
| A program to combine as much as ten (10) noise sources Conversion of sound pressure level to sound pressure and sound intensity |
Habitify 6 0 4 X 4
Curves of Equal-Loudness Level contours ISO 226 − The New Standard
Acoustics - Normal equal-loudness-level contours (ISO 226:2003)
| back | Search Engine | home |
